RELIGION
Religion in Contemporary South Korea
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Confucianism, Buddhism and Christianity all play
important roles in Korea. While these three religions have been
powerful influences, none of these have been able to secure a
dominant place in present day Korea. As a result, all three religions
have equal status in the country. (Ed. Lancaster/Payne/Yoon Yee-heum) |
According to government statistics, 42.6 percent
or more than 17 million of South Korea's 1985 population professed
adherence to an organized religious community. There were at least
8 million Buddhists (about 20 percent of the total population),
about 6.5 million Protestants (16 percent of the population),
some 1.9 million Roman Catholics (5 percent), nearly 500,000 people
who belonged to Confucian groups (1 percent), and more than 300,000
others (0.7 percent). Significantly, large metropolitan areas
had the highest proportions of people belonging to formal religious
groups: 49.9 percent in Seoul, 46.1 percent in Pusan, and 45.8
percent in Taegu. The figures for Christians revealed that South
Korea had the highest percentage of Christians of any country
in East or Southeast Asia, with the exception of the Philippines.
Source: http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/south-korea/south-korea81.html
Confucian religious groups are probably underrepresented
in official status. Korean social norms are grounded in the Confucian
value system and many religious practices stem from Confucianism.
This is also the case with Shamanism, which is not in official
tables, but which is promoted by the government and followed by
many practitioners of other religions. (Ed. Lancaster/Payne/Chungmoo
Choi)
Korea has produced several hundred "new religions"
or sects which have been more or less influential in the last
200 years. The most well known in North America is the Unification
church, founded by Sun Myung Moon in 1954 with branches in North
America. The oldest of these "new religions" is Chon'dogyo,
founded in 1860 as a reaction to Western teachings. It is a mixture
of Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism and shamanism.
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Confucianism
Although Confucianism was introduced to Korea before Buddhism,
its ideological popularity grew later through the introduction
of Neo-Confucianism during the late-Koryo and early-Choson periods. |
Chong To-jon (1342-1398), also known as Sambong,
was a thinker who played a central role in overthrowing the Koryo
Dynasty and establishing the new Choson Dynasty on the basis of
Neo-Confucianism. In his teachings, he elucidated Confucian orthodoxy,
claiming that Buddhism and Taoism stood outside of the Confucian
orthodoxy and were thereby heterodoxical. According to Chong,
li (principle) was the basic concept of Confucianism, ki (material
force) the basic concept of Taoism and mind was the basic concept
of Buddhism. Since ki and mind only operated based on li, they
could not be used as a basis for philosophy. Chong thus claimed
that Taoism and Buddhism were one-sided and incomplete heterodoxies,
which should be abolished and replaced with orthodox Confucianism.
In works such as Choson kyonggukchon, Chong advocated a re-alignment
of society in accord with the times. As a reformer, he advocated
social change based on enlightened government and Confucian orthodoxy.
Through his efforts, Neo-Confucianism was established as the ideology
of the newly formed Choson Dynasty.
Kwon Kun (1352-1409, also known as Yang-ch'on)
was a scholar who, along with Chong To-jon, established the Confucian
tradition of the Choson Dynasty. He translated the "Four
Books and Three Classics" of the Confucian canon from the
standpoint of Neo-Confucianism, bringing classical studies to
a new height. In his diagram "Ch'oninshimsong habiljido,"
he clarified the concepts of heaven, man, mind and human nature,
laying the foundation for Choson Neo-Confucian thought. Through
his research on the classics, he developed Confucian orthodoxy,
and his theoretical studies and prepared the philosophical basis
of Neo-Confucianism. In this sense, he served as a prominent leader
of Confucian studies.
Yi Hwang (1501-1570), also known as T'oegye,
is the scholar who brought Choson Neo-Confucianism into full bloom.
In Songhak Shipto (Ten Diagrams of Sagely Learning) and numerous
other writings, he propounded his doctrine that li and ki arise
in mutual correspondence. This theory touched off a vigorous debate
among Choson Neo-Confucian scholars, which led to extraordinary
developments in the school's doctrines. In terms of theory, T'oegye
held the view that li was dominant. However, instead of stopping
at mere theory, he developed a practical teaching method aimed
at personal cultivation. Neo-Confucianism is often called, simply,
the "Study of the Way." With a teaching that encompassed
both theoretical reflections as well as practical cultivation,
T'oegye can be said to have perfected this teaching. His Neo-Confucian
thought gathers the brilliant practical ideals lying within each
theory and puts them together to form a whole. In a sense, his
theoretical doctrines form the starting point of the "Study
of the Way," while his doctrine of practical cultivation
represents its culmination. Thus, T'oegye was neither a fundamentalist
nor a dogmatist, but was rather an intelligent advocate of piety
who devoutly sought the practical realization of his ideals.
Yi I (1536-1584, also known as Yulgok), along
with T'oegye, was one of the two great masters of Choson Confucianism.
Although Yulgok praised T'oegye's philosophy, he criticized many
of its theoretical aspects. His numerous written works, including
"songhak chibyo" (Compilation of the Essentials of Sagely
Learning), indicate diverse and extensive scholarly interests.
In Yulgok's thought, that which manifests is
ki and that by which it is manifested is li. He thus emphasized
that li and ki were an inseparable entity. According to his theory,
when ki becomes active, li ascends it so as to become a unity.
The fact that Yulgok was able to apply this doctrine to the diverse
aspects of his teaching while maintaining logical consistency
demonstrates his brilliance as a thinker. His general theory is
also related to his theory of government, in which he sets forth
numerous programs for social reform. He is remembered as an outstanding
intellectual who worked to realize an ideal Confucian society.
Another important figure is Chong Yak-yong (1762-1836).
Also known as Tasan, he is a representative Sirhak scholar of
the late 19th century. Sirhak (Practical Learning) is an ideology
that sought to reform the institutionalized Neo-Confucianism of
the Choson period. Thus, it represents a liberal movement within
the Confucian tradition. In order to put an end to the doctrinal
disputes that had plagued Neo-Confucianism during the previous
two centuries, Tasan felt that it was necessary to elucidate the
central teaching of Confucianism. Thus, Tasan began a radical
re-interpretation of the vast body of Confucian classics. Based
on this work, Tasan penned an extensive collection of treatises
on government, including his famous work "Mongmin shimso"
(On Leading the People). His theory of government focuses on assuring
the livelihood of the people and the nation's legal system. For
this reason, his practical philosophy rejected the Neo-Confucian
obsession with metaphysics. Instead, it sought to resolve issues
affecting the livelihood of the people, while encouraging good
government capable of helping people during times of crisis. In
this sense, Tasan was a foresighted thinker who sought to reform
tradition in response to the needs of the times.
These five Confucian thinkers discussed monumental
works that helped define the history of Korean Confucianism. As
can be seen, Choson-era Confucian scholars placed great importance
on a pious fidelity to their tradition. For this reason, they
had an exclusive attitude toward other religions and, hence, appear
to be self-righteous. However, instead of clinging to Neo-Confucian
dogma, they sought to elucidate the ideals of Neo-Confucianism
according to their historical circumstances and reform the societies
in which they lived. Understood within this context, they must
not be seen as exclusive dogmatists, but as creative intellectuals.
In Korea, representative Buddhist and Confucian
thinkers were not interested in theory for its own sake. Instead,
they utilized their independent intellectual abilities to elucidate
religious ideals within the context of their unique historical
reality. This intellectual attitude has formed the basis of Korea's
ancient classical culture. From the Three Kingdoms through the
Choson period, countless Buddhist and Confucian thinkers have
left their legacy of refined philosophical works, as well as beautiful,
practical examples of their search for human ideals. For this
reason, Korea, even more than China or Japan, has been able to
preserve Confucianism and Buddhism in their classical forms.
Source: http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/rel/confucianism.htm
Confucian attitudes are still prevalent in the
country, and certain features of the modern Korean social system
can be attributed to this. The country's rapid industrialization
and the emphasis on education in modern day Korea is also an outcome
of the country's Confucian heritage. At the same time, traditional
ideas like monarchy, subservience to China, anti-commercialism
and anti-Christianity that do not fit into the modern scheme of
things have been rejected.
Though Confucian values were used historically
for political purposes, its widespread use began only after the
introduction of neo-Confucianism in the late 13th century. Confucian
social ethics were used by the Park, Chun and in later years,
the Japanese in order to strengthen their control over the Korean
people.
(Confucian values in S. Korea, John Duncan, UCLA,
- Religion and Society in Contemporary Korea)
Buddhism
Compared with other religions, Buddhism thought is oriented towards
the practical. Its aim at the individual level is to attain Buddhahood
and, at the social level, to save living beings. The object of
salvation, no matter what it may be, falls within the category
of living beings. Therefore, regardless of what religion people
believe in, they are regarded as an object of Buddhist salvation.
In this way, Buddhism is inclusive and tolerant, and Korean Buddhism
is no exception.
Wonhyo (617-686) stands at the pinnacle of Korean
intellectual history as a thinker embodying the characteristics
of Korean Buddhist thought. Warning against doctrinal rigidity
as well as the aristocratic monopoly on Buddhism, he attempted
to create a practical Buddhism that was oriented toward common
people. At the same time, his work to systematize and integrate
its diverse doctrines became a model for critical Buddhist research.
As a part of his effort to bring together Buddhism's profound
doctrines, he emphasized that all phenomena are merely products
of the mind. According to Wonhyo, if one could merely awaken to
the fact that all phenomena are products of the mind, all doctrinal
disputes would become meaningless. For this reason, he felt that
doctrines and disputes were less important than the ideal of practice
contained within them. Wonhyo therefore emphasized the "harmonization
of disputes," meaning that one could only approach truth
by putting a stop to conflict. In this way, he demonstrated an
intellectual attitude that sought to harmonize strict adherence
to doctrine with a practical orientation.
Eisang (625-702) firmly established the Hwaom
(Chinese "Huayen") ideal of a "Buddha Land"
in order to create solid foundations for the Unified Silla Kingdom.
According to Hwaom doctrine, all things have their place within
the harmony of the universal order. If one awakens to this order,
anguish and contentions instantly disappear and the world is seen
as full of harmony and peace. The Buddha triad that represents
the blessed Hwaom realm is enshrined within the main hall of Buddhist
temples. Taeil Yorae (Mahavairocana) sits in the center as the
symbol of the sun and light; Kwanum Posal (Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva)
sits on the right as the representation of compassion; Munsu Posal
(Manjusri Bodhisattva) sits on the left, as the symbol of wisdom.
Due to Eisang's teachings, all of Korea came to be thought of
as a Buddhist land and various areas came to be thought of as
sacred places in which Kwanum or Munsu Posal resided. In this
way, Eisang enlisted Hwaom thought, with its optimistic and comprehensive
character, to establish organized Buddhism and provide new vision
for the integrated society of Unified Silla. His teachings concerning
Kwanum Posal continue to have an important influence on Buddhist
practice.
Eich'won, a National Master during the Koryo period,
attempted to restore organized Buddhism. In doing so, he hoped
to reform the Buddhist order, which had become corrupt during
the late-Silla and early-Koryo period. During the latter part
of the Unified Silla period, a movement centering around the "Nine
Mountains" meditation schools led to a sudden expansion of
Son (Chan or Zen) Buddhism. Emphasizing personal cultivation,
Son Buddhism rejected the centralized control of the royal house
and doctrinal orders and thus advanced the trend toward regional
power centers. Doctrinal Buddhism, on the other hand, required
massive funds from the royal house in order to publish Buddhist
sutras and written works. Son Buddhism's expansion thus intensified
the decline of the doctrinal orders. Eich'won, seeking to alter
this dangerous trend, advocated religious practice based on both
doctrinal learning (Kyo) and meditation (son). However, Eich'won's
approach actually amounted to a superficial acceptance of Son
within the tradition of doctrinal studies. Eich'won thus sought
to unify Koryo society by restoring the organization of Buddhism
around the royal house.
Chinul (1158-1210), unlike Eich'won, attempted
to reform Buddhism from within the Son sect. With the military
coup of 1170, Korean society fell into hopeless chaos and the
Buddhist world likewise fell prey to ongoing power struggles.
In this troubled atmosphere, Chinul gathered together a group
of seekers who had renounced fame and profit and opted for a secluded
life devoted to pure religious cultivation. Since the group's
practice included both meditation and doctrinal studies, it was
called the Samadhi and Prajna (Concentration and Wisdom) Community.
Thus, Chinul sought to reform the Buddhist world by developing
a small but ardent community of religious practitioners devoted
to the dual cultivation of Son (meditation) and Kyo (doctrine).
This small community, with its strict commitment to religious
practice, serves as a model for Korean Son school even today.
After Chinul, Korean Buddhism actually began to favor Son Buddhism,
but still accepted doctrinal studies as being in harmony with
Son. Combining the comprehensive ideals of Hwaom thought with
the strict practice of son meditation, Chinul made the Korean
Son school much more inclusive and integrated than its Chinese
or Japanese counterparts.
Both Eich'lon and Chinul expounded philosophies
that were primarily concerned with the unification of Son and
Kyo, and both thinkers sought to reform Buddhism from the standpoint
of their particular historical surroundings.
With the advent of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910),
the government adopted a policy of oppressing Buddhism while promoting
Confucianism. As a result, concern shifted from reform to preservation
of the Buddhist order. Due to this systematic oppression, the
Buddhist order radically decreased in size. By the time of the
Hideyoshi invasions in the late 16th century, Korean Buddhism
had retreated into the mountains where it existed totally outside
of any institutional system. As the traditional sectarian divisions
ceased to exist, it fell into a state of anarchy. Hyujong (Grand
Master Sosan) is the thinker who best epitomizes the Buddhism
of this period.
Hyujong (1520-1604) emphatically claimed that
the basic teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism were
in agreement, and that Son and Kyo were mutually compatible. In
particular, he claimed that since Confucianism and Buddhism were
mutually complementary, not only at the philosophical level, but
at the social level as well, the two teachings could function
together to establish social harmony. He claimed that the policy
of Buddhist suppression was therefore misguided, and thus sought
public protection of the religion. By the Choson period, the doctrines
of Son and Kyo harmony were common.
Each of these five Buddhist thinkers who spanned
more than ten centuries, from the time of Wonhyo to the time of
Hyujong attempted to solve a problem particular to his era. Yet,
they all sought to reform Buddhism through a syncretic approach.
Source: http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/rel/buddhism.htm
Buddhist monks in modern Korea are facing criticism
that they are unable to adjust to societal changes. Internal strife
is endangering the Buddhist institution, monasteries are facing
financial crises, and Buddhist rituals have lost appeal as Korea
has become more involved in the modern economy. However, Buddhist
temples are still active in many places, young people are still
attracted to the Buddhist way of life and meditation centers,
temporary retreats and meditation courses for businessmen have
become popular. With its usual flexibility, Buddhism is adapting
to modern times.
Daoism
Daoism has never existed as an organized religious
body or as a separate school of philosophy in Korea. Though Buddhism
was accepted as a religion and Confucianism gained considerable
following, Taoism was never accepted in Korea.
Daoism made some progress only during one period
of Korean history. This was during the last phase of the Koguryo
kingdom, when elite members of society took interest in Daoist
speculative thoughts and concepts of immortality.
The cultural influence of Daoism can be seen in
the tiles from the tombs of King Muryong of Paekche that depict
the Daoist Land of the Immortals. Similar images are found on
tiles from the Unified Silla Period. An interest in Daoist immortals
continued to the end of the Choson dynasty. However, this interest
never translated into a major following for the religion. As a
result, while one can find Daoist influences on Korean culture
from an early period, one cannot speak of a Daoist religious tradition.
Daoist motifs are seen in the paintings on the
walls of Koguryo tombs. http://www.oneworld-publications.com/samples/daoism.htm
Shamanism
Shamanism is the oldest religion in Korea and it is a traditions
shared with Japan, with the peoples of Mongolia, Manchuria, Siberia
and many other cultures. Shamanism is a folk religion centered
on a belief in good and evil spirits who can be contacted and
influenced by shamans or spiritual mediums. The shaman is a professional
spiritual mediator who performs rites. Mudang, in Korean, usually
refers to female shamans, while male shamans are called paksu-mudang.
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The shaman plays the role of an intermediary
between human beings and the supernatural, speaking for the humans
to deliver their wishes and for the spirits to reveal their will.
Thus, the belief in the powers of the Shaman, presupposes beliefs
in the existence of a large variety of spirits which can be summoned
for aid or which can harm people if they are angry or disturbed.
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Shamanism is connected with animism, the belief
that the world is full of spirits and that every unusual or important
physical feature has a spirit. Thus, mountain peaks, rivers, long
lived trees, unusual rocks, etc, all have spirits which can be
harmful or helpful. In addition, spirits of ancestors, especially
those who died pre-mature or violent deaths, can hang around and
cause mischief. Other spirits are living people, such as royalty,
who also need to be propitiated.
These spirits often cause physical illness and
many animists believe that all illness is caused first and foremost
by these spirits. Thus, most shamans are also healers; in fact,
they become recognized as Shamans because of their ability to
survive a difficult illness and to help others deal with sickness.
Thus, many of their rituals involve healing rites, expelling spirits
which cause illness. The rituals include dances, singing or chanting,
waving of branches or knives, and the use of herbal remedies.
In Korea today, shamanism, far from dying out,
has evolved into a series of techniques to complement modern medicine
and to deal with new problems. The government recognizes certain
Shamans as "National Living Treasures" and provides
them with an income. In return, these shamans conduct various
rites for people and for businesses. It is not unusual for a modern
international business to contact a Shaman to conduct a ritual
if their market share falls, if corruption is discovered in the
company, or before a new product is launched. Thus, shamanism
has adapted to modern times.
For the story of a 7th century Korean Queen,
who was also a shaman, please click on the following: http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/heroine7.html
