Introduction
The majority
(about 75%) of Bhutanese are Buddhists, followers of the Kagyu
Drukpa sub-sect of the Kagyu sect of Mahayana Buddhism which is
the official religion of the nation. Thus Bhutan is the only nation
in which the Tantric (mystical, apocalyptic) form of Buddhism
is the state religion. This tradition was introduced from Tibet
in the 11th century and Bhutanese Buddhism obviously has many
similarities to Tibetan Buddhism; however, over the centuries
it developed its own rituals, liturgy and monastic organization.
Most of the remaining Bhutanese are Hindu. They are ethnic Nepalese
who in recent years have experienced some discrimination and about
100,000 have fled as refugees to India in recent years. There
are a small number of Muslims as well.
In addition,
many Bhutanese also follow the traditional animistic traditions
of Bon which was the main religion in the Himalayan area prior
to the introduction of Buddhism from India. Bon is a Tibetan word
meaning "invocation" or "recitation" and Bon
priests (called Bonpo) lead rituals of worship of natural elements
such as the sun, moon, and sky. The priests also perform rituals
of exorcism, burial rites and divinations to tame threatening
demons and prayers to the gods. Buddhism initially displaced Bon
but Bon priests reacted by devising scriptures and ceremonies
in imitation of Buddhist ones; by the 11th century it reasserted
itself as a religion separate from Buddhism. At the same time,
it infused both Tibetan and Bhutanese Buddhism with an appreciation
for omens and demons which are felt to influence daily life. Many
people practice both Buddhism and Bon and sometimes don't distinguish
between them.
For a site
on the origins and traditions of Bon in Tibet (from where it came
to Bhutan) please click on the following: http://www.ligmincha.org/
For a description
of a Bon ceremony in Bhutan, please click on: http://www.asiarice.org/sections/whatsnew/Bhutan2.html
Basic Beliefs
and Practices of Buddhism
Buddhism is
a religion which originated in India in the 6th century B.C. and
rapidly spread throughout Asia. Founded by Siddhartha Gautama
(the Buddha), the religion stresses one's own responsibility for
one's actions and promotes the central virtues of love, compassion,
kindness, and no harm to any living creature. Buddhism grew out
of dissatisfaction with the increasingly ritualistic practices
of Hinduism; it also totally rejected the caste system and insisted
on the equality of everyone. However, Buddhism kept certain of
the key Hindu beliefs, including the belief in reincarnation,
the role of Karma (one's actions) in causing reincarnation, the
desire to escape from this "wheel or rebirth" and the
belief that ending the cycle of life resulted in entrance to Nirvana,
a vaguely described feeling of total bliss. Buddhists also believed
that the world, while often a thing of joy, is also a place of
suffering; the aim of Buddhism is to relieve the suffering of
mankind by eliminating the cause of this suffering.
As Buddhism
spread, it divided into many sects and sub-sects, centered around
different practices and different ways to reach the same goal.
The two main divisions are the Theravada and the Mahayana. Theravada
means "Teaching of the Elders" and considers itself
closer to original Buddhism; it stresses self-reliance, the monastic
life, study of scriptures and meditation. It is prevalent in Southeast
Asia (Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand). Mahayana
means "greater vehicle" and accepts that compassionate
and enlightened human beings called Bodhisattvas can assist one
on the path to Nirvana, and that the historical Buddha was only
one manifestation of a cosmic Buddha and there are many other
Buddhas, all of whom are able to assist people both in ordinary
life desires and in achieving Nirvana. This sect stresses that
people don't have to follow the path to Nirvana alone, but can
have the help of a variety of beings, many of whom act like gods;
it also puts less stress on the monastic life. This sect has divided
into many sub-sects and is prevalent throughout East Asia. One
of its divisions, the Tantryana is sometimes considered the third
major division of Buddhism and is prevalent in Tibet, Bhutan,
Ladakh, and Sikkim (the Himalayan region) plus Mongolia and Manchuria;
smaller groups exist elsewhere in East Asia. This sect adds writings
called the Tantras to the Sutras (scriptures) of the first two
sects. These are later writings which stress the union of the
body, mind and speech in the search for enlightenment, mandate
the necessity of a human teacher or guide on the path to enlightenment,
use many aids, such as chants, rituals, and objects as aids to
meditation and stress that enlightenment can occur quickly.
However, despite
these divisions, the basic ideas of Buddhism are those taught
by the Buddha in his first sermon, in the Deer Park in Benares,
after he himself attained "enlightenment". The legend
of the Buddha states that he was a prince (Siddhartha Gautama)
of a small kingdom called Sakya (now in Nepal). When he was born,
a seer predicted that he would be either a great king or a great
world renouncer. His father the king, wanted to prevent his son
from renouncing the world and becoming a wandering holy man and
thus surrounded him with luxury and kept from him knowledge of
ills and evils. However, the gods took a hand and, when the prince
was out riding one day, exposed him to the fours sights: a beggar,
an ill man, a corpse, and a holy man. These sights shocked the
young prince who realized how much suffering existed. He decided
to rid the world of this suffering and one night, at the age of
29, left his palace, his wife, his son (named Rahula, which means
fetters), his horse and clothes and adopted the robe of a wandering
ascetic. He spent 6 years in self-mortification, starving and
suffering and then realized that this was not bringing him closer
to understanding the cause of suffering. So he ate and drank in
moderation and sat under a tree (since called the Bodhi or tree
of enlightenment) and meditated until he came to a realization,
an understanding of the cause both of misery and of rebirth. This
understanding is called enlightenment and it came to have two
meanings: that one would not be reborn again but, upon "death"
would go to Nirvana, a state of bliss; and that one would live
the rest of one's life in total joy and happiness, unbothered
by anything that would happen.
The way to
rid oneself of suffering that the Buddha came to understand and
to preach was called the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
These are the basic core beliefs of Buddhism. The Four Noble Truths
are:
1) The world is full of suffering
2) This suffering is caused by desire
3) There is a cure for this suffering
4) The cure is to get rid of desire
The Noble
Eightfold Path is the way to get rid of desire which is seen as
the cause of all misery AND the cause of rebirth. The Indian term
Karma, which literally means actions, was redefined by Buddha
to imply that it is the desires behind one's actions, which cause
the accumulation of karma which in turn causes rebirth. Thus any
action which is accidental or which is done with no selfish desire
of any kind does not cause rebirth. The key to escaping from the
cycle of rebirth, as well as to achieving happiness on earth,
is the elimination of desire. Following the eightfold path is
the easiest and best way to achieve this aim. The path consists
of three sections: ethical conduct, mental development and wisdom.
Under ethical conduct one practices right speech, right action
and right livelihood; under mental development one practices right
effort, mindfulness, and concentration; and under wisdom, one
practices right view and right intention.
The various sects which developed had different ideas about what
constituted these eight virtues and how to practice them. For
example, what is right speech? Is it permissible to tell a lie
to save people's lives? Under right action, for example, one must
take a vow of non-harm of other creatures. Does this mean that
one should starve to death rather than eating meat? Does it mean
one should never kill in self-defense? Each of the above 8 virtues
raised many questions about its implementation and these were
answered differently by different Buddhists.
The center of Buddhist life is the monastery. Buddha felt that
it is difficult to avoid desire and preference while leading the
life of a householder; giving up the things of the world and living
in a monastery with one's simple wants met would make it easier
to follow the above eightfold path. Thus, monks and nuns have
always been at the center of Buddhism and the monastic way of
life is practiced in all Buddhist countries. Gradually a set of
rules, called the Vinaya rules, governing monastic life was created.
Each monk or nun takes 3 great vows: poverty, chastity, non-harm
to others and agrees to abide by ten precepts: to abstain from
harming living beings, taking things not freely given, sexual
misconduct, false speech, intoxicating drinks and drugs causing
heedlessness, taking untimely meals, dancing, singing, music,
the use of flowers, perfumes and personal adornment, the use of
high seats, the use of gold and silver.
The monks and nuns performed many services to the communities
which in turn supported them with gifts, food, clothing and other
necessities. The monks and nuns, established schools, orphanages,
old age homes, soup kitchens, hospitals, inns, and other social
service institutions as well as providing a variety of religious
services and advice to the local community. They were held in
high regard (even today in Thailand, the king will bow before
a monk) and often played important roles in government.
For an excellent site which goes into more detail about the basics
of Buddhist thought and practice, please click on the following:
About Buddhism
For more details
on Buddhist ideas and practices and the differences between Theravada,
Mahayana and Tantrayana, the following lecture by the Dalai Lama
is excellent;
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/4886/dalai2.htm
History
of Buddhism in Bhutan
Buddhism first
came to Bhutan in the 7th century A.D. when the Tibetan king,
Srongtsen Gampo had two Buddhist temples built: at Bumthang in
Central Bhutan and at Kyichu in the Paro Valley. Buddhism absorbed
the local Bon traditions in Bhutan, much as it had done in Tibet.
In the middle of the 8th century, Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche,
or the Lotus Born One) came to Bhutan from India. According to
tradition, he "subdued eight classes of demons" and
converted the king to Buddhism. Setting up his headquarters in
Bumthang, he proceeded to establish new monasteries and introduced
the Nyingmapa sect of Buddhism to Bhutan (and also to Tibet, where
he is equally honored). The Nyingmapa sect, also called the "red
hat" sect because of the characteristic hats the monks wear,
soon became the dominant sect of Buddhism in Bhutan. Unlike other
Buddhist sects in Bhutan and Tibet, Nyingma monks and nuns were
free to marry, and leadership of monasteries was often passed
down from father to son. With the establishment of Nyingmapa,
Guru Rinpoche introduced the Tantras to both Bhutan and Tibet.
The Tantras are writings which describe devotions to deities representing
natural forces, in both angelic and demonic forms, and which serve
as a shortcut to enlightenment; they are esoteric, or secretive
writings, which can only be understood with the guidance of a
teacher or lama (a lama is a teaching monk). Guru Rinpoche is
thus the national saint who revealed the Tantras.
Bhutan had
no centralized government at the time of the introduction of Buddhism,
but was divided into a series of small independent kingdoms; each
king claimed divine origin. This lack of unity, coupled with increasing
Tibetan migration to Bhutan, resulted in the conquest of the entire
country by Tibetan-Mongol military forces in the 11th century.
With these military forces came several new sects of Buddhism,
the most important being two sub-sects of the Kagyupa school:
the Llapa and the Drukpa. Both sub-sects built fortified monasteries,
similar to those built in Tibet, called Dzongs. For the next 5
centuries, these two sub-sects fought and struggled with each
other for control of the religious and secular life of Bhutan.
Together, they slowly replaced the older Nyingmapa Buddhism, which
still survives in Bhutan, but in very reduced form. The triumph
in Tibet of the Gelugpa or Yellow Hat Sect (this is the Dalai
Lama's sect of Buddhism) over the other sects in the 14th century
resulted in the flight of many Drukpa Kagyupa members to Bhutan,
further strengthening the sect.
All the various
sects of Buddhism have much in common as they all adhere to the
same beliefs and ideals. They tend to differ in the application
of these ideas, in the practical ways to attain enlightenment,
to escape from the cycle of rebirth, and to lead a good life.
The Drukpa Kagyupa sect, like the other Tibetan and Mahayana sects,
believes that Bodhisattvas (literally a Buddha to be), enlightened
beings so moved by compassion that they take a vow to save all
sentient beings and thus delay their own entry into Nirvana, are
savior beings whose compassion can be accessed by meditation and
ritual. They emphasize the cosmic Buddha, Vairocana, of whom the
historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, was only one of his myriad
manifestations. In practice, Bodhisattvas are treated like deities
rather than as the enlightened human beings they are, and they
are worshipped and placated much like the other deities which
have been adopted and adapted into Buddhism from a variety of
sources but mostly from local shamanistic folk traditions (called
Bon). These deities include reformed demons and wandering ghosts,
as well as saintly humans. The Tantras, introduced first by Padmasambhava,
brought various means of controlling, placating and using the
power of these deities including the use of sacred icons, mantras
(repetitive phrases such as om mani padme hum-the jewel is in
the lotus), hand gestures called mudras, and a variety of rituals.
The central
teaching of the Kagyupa school, the main sect in Bhutan, focuses
upon meditation on mahamudra (great seal, or great gestures) along
with six other meditative practices which teach self control of
the body, speech and mind in the search for Nivrvana. This school,
like other Tantric sects, believes in the direct transmission
of beliefs and practices from teacher to disciple, thus establishing
lineages which are central to the continuation of the sect. Like
a number of other sects, the Kagyupa believe in the institution
of the Tulku, the reincarnated lama. All Buddhists accept the
idea of reincarnation; the Tantric sects believe that certain
high lamas have reached such a state of progress towards Nirvana
that they can control their future reincarnations and chose the
body they will inhabit. The new reincarnation, called a Tulku,
is always a male child born between 49 days to two years, after
the death of the reincarnating lama. The dying lama leaves directions
as to where his reincarnation will be found, physical signs by
which the child can be identified, and other clues. A group of
monks and sometimes government figures then searches for the new
lama; once found, the child is removed from his family and brought
up in the monastery, groomed for his role as leader of the sect.
The world's most well known Tulku is, of course, the Dalai Lama,
who is the 13th reincarnation of the founder of the Gelugpa Sect
of which he is the head, but many other sects have Tulkus.
Monasteries
and convents are common throughout Bhutan and have been so for
centuries. Both monks and nuns shave their heads and wear maroon
robes. While they spend time in prayer, study and meditation they
also engage in the performance of rituals honoring bodhisattvas,
praying for the dead, and seeking protection from the demons which
cause illness and misery. The prayers involve the body, mind and
speech, the three mysteries important in the Tantric Buddhism
which stresses the union of these three in the search for enlightenment.
Thus they use chants and singing, the playing of a variety of
instruments including conch shells, instruments made from human
thighbones, metal horns which are 4 yards long, large and small
drums and cymbals, hand bells, gongs etc. Monks and nuns spend
part of their time helping the general populace and ministering
to its spiritual and practical needs.
Since Tantric
Buddhism practices the unity of body, speech, and mind, it uses
visual symbols to constantly remind people of the need to seek
enlightenment. Religious monuments such as prayer walls (walls
of stone inscribed with prayers), prayer flags, mantras carved
into hillsides, chortens (a form of the Indian stupa which is
a reliquary for deceased monks or saints), and prayer wheels (large
standing or small hand carried wheels which hold prayers insides
and are spun, sending the prayers to the gods) are ubiquitous.
The political
system in Bhutan changed in the 17th century with the overthrow
of Tibetan rule and the creation of a theocratic government by
a Drukpa monk, Ngawang Namgyal who sought refuge in Bhutan from
the domination of Tibet by the Gelugpa sect. He won support over
other sub-sect leaders and took the title Shabdrung (At whose
feet one submits), becoming both the temporal and religious leader
of Bhutan. He united Bhutan's powerful families, created a legal
code, built a series of dzong to bring local lords under centralized
control and fought against attempted Tibetan takeover. The Tibetans,
at this time ruled by the Mongols, attacked Bhutan a number of
times between 1629 and 1647; each time, Namgyal's armies defeated
the invaders and maintained Bhutan's independence.
The governmental
system he set up was similar in conception to that in Tibet and
comprised a state monastic body with an elected head (the Je Khenpo
or Lord Abbot) and a civil government headed by the druk desi
(regent of Bhutan, who could be either a monk or a lay person;
by the 19th century, he was always a lay person). Both acted under
the advice of the Shabdrung, Nmagyal himself, who was thus head
of both the secular and the religious organizations. He set up
two capitals: Thimphu as the spring, summer and fall capital and
Punakha, in a more temperate area, as the winter capital. His
law code, the Tsa Yig was based on the Buddhist Dharma (teachings)
and remained in force until the 1960s.
When Namgyal
died in 1651, his death was kept a secret for 54 years. During
this time, it was claimed that he was in a state of advanced meditation;
decrees were issued in his name and food was left in front of
his locked door. He was succeeded first by his son, and then by
his step-brother, both of whom began their rule as minors and
were under the control of regents. To further maintain stability,
the Je Khempo and the Druk Desi proclaimed that Namgyal had multiple
reincarnations: one each of his mind, body, and speech. The last
bodily incarnation died in the 18th century, but speech and mind
incarnations continued to be recognized well into the 20th century.
This system of government continued in spite of pressure, first
from the Tibetans and then from the British as they sought to
make India a colony. Struggles existed between rivals claiming
to be incarnations and between Bhutanese and outside forces.
These struggles,
especially the British expedition to Tibet in 1904 and its ensuing
treaty, brought to the Bhutanese awareness that this dual religious/secular
political system was obsolete. In November, 1907, an assembly
of Buddhist monks, government officials and heads of important
families voted to end this system and to establish a monarchy;
Ugyen Wangchuck was elected the first Dragon King (Druk Gyalpo)
and the Dorji family became hereditary holders of the position
of Chamberlain (Gongzim), the top government position. This government
remains in effect today with the current Dragon King being the
4th hereditary monarch and he is a progressive ruler who is seeking
to lead Bhutan slowly into the modern world, while preserving
its religious and cultural traditions.
Today, the
government supports the Kagyu sect of Buddhism as the official
religion of Bhutan and gives subsidies to monasteries, shrines,
monks, and nuns and finances the publication of religious texts.
There are currently about 12,000 monks in Bhutan, about 1,000
of whom belong to the Central Monastic Body in the capitals of
Thimphu and Punakha, and about 4,000 of whom are in district monasteries.
The religious hierarchy is still headed by the Je Khenpo, assisted
by four experts (lonpon) who head bureaus of religious tradition,
liturgy, lexicography, and logic.
The following travel site has some good pictures
of Bhutan, including monasteries, dzongs, monks, prayer flags,
prayer wheels, etc.http://www.innogize.com/gallery/asia_bhutan_wangdue.html
